ANCIENT INDIA HISTORY BRIEF NOTE

INDIAN ANCIENT HISTORY

The Indian history of human settlements goes back to pre-historic times when no written records were available for prehistoric India. However, a number of archaeological remains are found in different places of India.

They include the stone tools, pottery, artifacts and metal implements used by pre-historic people. The stuydy of ancient history and development of archaeology helps much to understand the life and culture of the people who lived The pre-historic period is divided into following parts in this period.

The Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

The Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

The Mesolithic Age (Middle Stone Age) 2 The

Chalcolithic Age (Metal Age) 4

* Palaeolithic men were hunters and food gatherers as they had no knowledge of agriculture, fire or pottery. • The Mesolithic people also lived on hunting, fishing and food-gathering. At a later stage, they also domesticated animals. The people of this age used tools and implements of polished stone. They particularly used stone axes.

Copper was the first metal used by men and the culture based on the use of stone and copper tools is called the Chalcolithic culture. Mehargarh is the famous new stone age place from where Evidences of wheat and barley have Found. Burials of dogs, wolves and wild goats have also been found.

INDUS VALLY CIVILIASTION

The Indus valley civilisation is firstly called as the Harappan civilisation, because earliest excavations in the Indus valley were done at Harappa in the West Punjab and Mohenjodaro in Sindh. Both places are located in Pakistan now.

The Harappan culture matured in Sind and Punjab. It spread from there to Southwards and Eastwards. The total spread of this civilisation was bigger than Egypt and Mesopotamia.

But this civilisation was later named as the Indus civilisation due to the discovery of more and more sites far from the Indus valley.

Among the many other sites excavated during the Harappan civilisation, the most important are Kot Dizi in Sindh, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Ropar in Punjab, Banawali in Haryana, Lothal, Surkotada and

Dholavira in Gujarat.

Mohenjodaro is the largest of all the Indus valley cities and it is estimated to have spread over an area of 200 hectares.

Town Planning

The Indus civilisation was distinguished by its system of town planning on the lines of the grid system (streets and lanes cutting across one another almost at right angles).

Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan each had its own citadel built on a high podium of mud brick.

Below the citadel, a lower township were built, containing brick houses for common people.

The underground drainage system connecting all houses to the street drains which were covered by stone slabs or bricks.

Economic Life

There was a great progress in all spheres of economic activity such as agriculture, industry and crafts and trade during the Indus civilisation. They practiced barter system for exchange.

Wheat and barley were the main crops grown besides sesame, mustard and cotton. Surplus grain was stored in granaries.

Pottery remains plain and in some places red and black painted pottery is found. Beads were manufactured from a wide variety of semi-precious stones.

Painted pottery is of better quality. The pictorial motifs consisted of geometrical patterns like horizontal lines, circles, leaves, plants and trees. On some pottery pieces we find figures of fish or peacock.

The seals and the terracotta models of the Indus valley reveal the use of bullock carts and oxen for land transport and boats and ships for river and sea transport.

The Harappan crafts display an impressive level of standardisation. Kenoyer has suggested that state control may have been responsible for such a high level of standardisation in craft.

Religion

The chief male deity was Pashupati (Proto-Shiva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture with three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo, all facing a different direction and two deers appear on his feet.

The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess represented in terracotta figurines.

*There are evidences of phallus and yoni worship for the fertility.

Evidence of fire worship was also found at Lothal, Kalibangan and Harappa.

* Animal (Unicorn Bull) and tree worship (Pipal) was also found there.

They believe in super natural powers, and also believed in evil-powers and might have used amulets as protection against them.

Burial Practice

Complete burial and post-cremation burial were popular

at Mohenjodaro. At lothal, the burial pit was lined with

burnt bricks, indicating the use of coffins. Practice of

pot burials also prevailed, with pairs of bodies.

Wooden coffins were also found at Harappa. However, there is no clear evidence for the practice of Sati.

Seals

Most of the seals are made of steatite .i.c., a soft stone as the majority of the seals have an animal engraved on it with a short inscription. Shape of seals are square, rolled and triangular.

* Most frequently founded animal is unicorn bull.

* The technique of cutting and polishing these seals with white luster was a unique invention of the Indus valley civilisation.

Decline of the Civilisation

The Harappan culture flourished upto 1800 BC, then it began to decline. There is no unanimity about the reason of the decline of this civilisation. Epidemic, flood, climate change, war are the main reasons given by many scholars.

THE VEDIC AGE

The history of Vedic India is known largely through its religious texts, the Vedas, which gave the period its name. The Vedas recorded not only the religion of the Vedic people, but also details of their lives that give us a glimpse of their Political, Social and Economic life.

The Aryans

There are many theories about the origin of Aryans. The most accepted view is that they lived in the great steppe land which stretches from Poland to Central Asia. They were semi-nomadic people.

The Boghaz Kai inscription dated 1400 BC gives the information about peace treaty between the Hittites and the Mittanis rulers of the Hittani, in which the names of the Vedic Gods Indra, Mitra, Nasatya, and Varuna are mentioned. This supports the view of the Central Asian homeland theory that Central Asia was Aryan homeland.

Vedic age was divided into two parts, which are as follow

1. Early Vedic Age from 1500 BC - 1000 BC

ii. Later Vedic Age from 1000 BC - 600 BC

Early Vedic Age (1500 BC-1000 BC)

The main source of information for the study of early Vedic age people is the Rigveda. The founders of the Vedic culture, were the Aryans, probably immigrant people whose first arrival in India is dated around 2000-1500 BC.

The Rig Vedic Age

The Rig Veda gives us information that Aryans first settled at the region called Sapta Sindhu or the land of seven rivers (presently that region is East Afghanistan, Punjab and West UP)-Indus, Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas, Sutlej and Saraswati. Saraswati was most pious river.

Early Aryans were semi-nomadic and later on, they became cultivator. They gave great preference to the cattle, so the ruling class was warrior who were able to fight for cattle.

The Rig Vedic Society

* The Rig Vedic society was based on kinship. The early Aryans were essentially tribal and egalitarians.

* Tribe was called Jana. The basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the family was known as Grihapati.

* Society was patriarchal, generally monogamy was practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families.

Existence of joint family pattern, where women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and

intellectual development. Eldest male member of the Family was known as kulapa.

Social Division

Varna was the term used for colour and it seems that the Aryan language speakers were fair and the indigenous inhabitants were dark in complexion.

No evidence of caste system is found. Members of same family may took different occupation. This is well illustrated in a hymn of 9th mandala. Non-Aryans were called Dasas or Shudras.

Women possessed respectable status in the society, took part in tribal assemblies, in religious sacrifices along with their husbands. Child marriage was not in existence. The marriageable age was 16 or 17 years for girls.

Widow remarriage and Niyoga prevailed in society.

There was no Purdah system and the practice of Sati was absent.

The Rig Vedic Polity

* The head was the supreme of the tribe or Jana, but he was not supreme in powers, but worked on the collective response of the tribal assemblies.

* Tribal assemblies were Sabha, Samiti, Gana and Vidhata. Vidhata was the oldest one. These assemblies upholds every important activity (like social, military, religious etc).

Sabha and samiti were known as the twin daughters of Prajapati.

In Rig Veda, there is mention of tribal conflict and battle of ten kings in which Bharata found with host of ten other kings.

The Rig Vedic Religion

The early Vedic people were nature worshippers. Neither they had temples nor idols. They worshipped by the means of recitation of Mantra.

The motive of worship was to get Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth), till that time they don't require spiritual upliftment.

Boghazkai inscription of 1400 BC found in Asia Minor (Turkey) has mention of four Gods-Indra, Mitra, Varun and Nasatya.

Gods

Goddess Usha-Goddess of dawn, Aditi-Mother of Gods, Prithvi-Earth Goddess, Aryani-The Forest Goddess.

Indra 250 hymns of Rig Veda are dedicated to Indra. He was also known as Purandhar or the destroyer of the forts. He was also worshipped as 'God of War'.

Varuna He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order and regulated it by dice. It was believed that whatever is happening in the world is/was related with the desire of God Varuna.

Agni He was second most important God. About 200 hymns of Rig Veda were attributed to Agni. Agni was called the intermediary God between God and man.

Soma God of plants. Special hymns were given to Soma (9th mandala of Rig Veda is dedicated to Soma).

* Dyaus Father of Indra. (Dyases means heaven)

Ashwin Healer of wounds and surgeon.

Surya or Savitri, (the God of light) was the solar God.

The gayatri mantra is addressed to the Savitri in 3rd mandala of Rig Veda, which was composed by Maharishi Vishwamitra.

Pushan Guardian of roads, herdsmen and cattle.